Urban Transport in the OIC Megacities
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of cars, due to attractive fiscal policies, electric car sales in Europe increased by 77% in 2014. In the
last decade, many European cities (London, Milan and others) have introduced LEZ (Low Emission
Zones) in urban areas where only clean freight vehicles with diesel particulate filter are allowed to
enter.
In addition, the principal air quality pollutant emissions from petrol, diesel and alternative fuel
engines (carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, un-burnt hydrocarbons and particulate matter) are
regulated by the Euro emissions standards. Modern cars, if kept in good condition, produce only quite
small quantities of the air quality pollutants, but the emissions from large numbers of cars add to a
significant air quality problem. Unlike emissions of CO2, emissions of the air quality pollutants are not
directly linked to fuel consumption. Pollutant emission levels depend more on vehicle technology and
the state of maintenance of the vehicle. Over the last twenty years increasingly stringent emission
limits have been set at a European level, starting with the Euro1 standards in 1993. All new cars
currently have to meet the Euro 5 standard which was adopted on 1st January 2011. At the same time,
the European Union Ambient Air Quality Directive sets maximum permissible levels for atmospheric
concentrations of pollutants thought to be harmful to human health with which governments must
comply. Achieving the air quality standards for nitrogen dioxide and fine particles presents the
greatest challenge, especially in urban areas and areas close to busy roads (DfT, 2015).
In terms of physical activity many campaigns in developed countries are focused on promoting the
health benefits of active modes. Such campaigns are addressed to all age groups, highlighting the
different benefits for different people. In megacities such as London and New York, walkability and
cycling have been key issues in the healthy cities agendas. However, the impacts of current practices
are still not fully recognised in many cases. More specifically, obesity is widely considered and treated
as an individual problem when it is often a social problem as unsustainable lifestyles are not only
related to diet but also to mobility and exercise choices of both adults and children. At the same time,
the full impacts of noise pollution, especially in central areas in cities, are not fully incorporated in
transport planning policies. There is evidence that noise pollution can impact the physical and mental
health of city dwellers. It is suggested that current health and ecological sustainability practices should
be enhanced in order to support not just the absence of diseases but also a social and physical
environment that recognise the importance of active modes and enhances all modes of physical and
mental well-being.
Finally, in terms of the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, the contribution of transport is often not fully
recognised. UHI is often attributed to dense development and high densities but it is also a result of
high levels of combustion in the urban areas and the dark, unreflective asphalt surfaces. The road
network and the big open parking spaces contribute significantly to the increase of the urban
temperatures which, in turn, can have serious impacts on the health of urban populations. Lighter
colour surfaces, NMT and public transport, and planning for planting trees across streets can
significantly contribute to cooling the urban environment and reducing the sensible heat (Fraker,
2010).
3.9.3. Transport and health in the megacities in developing countries
While most developed countries have put in measures to reduce vehicle emissions, in terms of fuel
quality and vehicle emission reduction technologies, these measures are yet to be adopted in most
cities in developing countries. Unlike developed countries that implement fuels pricing to influence
the way the consumers choosing the vehicles types, many developing countries subsidise fossil fuel
consumption, which hinders the acceptance of new fuel technologies. Even in the cases when there is
political willingness to impose restrictions on old vehicles and emission standards, the lack of
monitoring capacity as well as the necessary funds to support new standards significantly limits the
success of such policies. Sao Paulo, the only megacity in Brazil, is possibly the only example of
successful example of alternative fuel adoption, as the country widely supports bio fuels.