Urban Transport in the OIC Megacities
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communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular conditions, cancer and diabetes, is recognised as a
leading cause of mortality worldwide, contributing to 3.2 million deaths annually. Increased use of
motorized transport limits the activity levels of all users as it contributes to the reduction of overall
levels of outdoor activity due to traffic and air pollution and limited accessibility to green and public
spaces (Rode et al, 2014).
Heat waves in cities are exacerbated by the urban heat island effect. These result from lowered
evaporative cooling, increased heat storage and sensible heat flux caused by lowered vegetation cover,
increased impervious cover and complex, dark surfaces, and possibly from heat trapping by elevated
levels of locally produced CO2. Central city areas show a large heat island effect, with an increase in
sensible heat up to 4˚C than the surrounding rural areas. Wider urban sprawl further exacerbates the
effect. For example, in southeast China, such land use patterns have been estimated to account for
0.05˚C of regional warming per decade since 1978.Heat waves can cause dramatic impacts on urban
health, particularly for vulnerable populations such as the elderly and low income groups. One of the
most striking examples of the recent years was the extended period of record high temperatures
experienced in Europe in summer 2003, which was made significantly more likely by human induced
climate change. This caused excess mortality of over 35,000 people within a one to two week period
in early August (Campbell-Lendrum and Corvalan, 2007).
Finally, air quality is strongly dependent on weather and is therefore sensitive to climate change.
Levels of many pollutants, such as ozone, are affected by atmospheric conditions and tend to be higher
on warmer days. Epidemiological evidence from developing country cities is weak, but inferences
from developed countries suggest significant risks associated with increasing temperatures. Studies
of 15 cities in the south eastern USA have shown that under one of the more severe scenarios of future
climate change, by the 2050s, climate change can be expected to raise the average number of days in
which the 8th hour6 ozone standard is exceeded by 60% and cause ozone related deaths to increase by
4.5% (for the impacts of transport on climate change see also sectio elow) (Campbell-Lendrum
and Corvalan, 2007).
There is a scope for synergies between efforts to improve urban transport related problems such as
congestion, and public health. Transport, as well as urban planning, affect energy consumption and
associated emissions through shaping land use, modal share and the extent of the urban heat island
effect. In addition, there is scope for actions at the individual, or at the municipal or national level,
which have the capacity to simultaneously enhance heath, reduce consumption, and provide economic
benefits (Campbell-Lendrum and Corvalan, 2007).
3.9.2. Transport and health in the megacities in developed countries
Air pollution has been recognised as a problem in the developed countries since the 1950s in both
Europe and North America. Motor vehicles emission standards were introduced as early as in 1966 in
California. Since then, many developed countries have been making significant efforts to improve air
quality and reduce air pollution caused by the transport sector by promoting sustainable transport.
Europe is mostly considered as world best practice in sustainable transport as most European
countries have high quality NMT infrastructures and a well-developed public transport system
(Parrish et al, 2011).
Besides implementing behavioural strategies (e.g. to attract more car users to use NMT and public
transport modes), European countries are currently also at the stage of promoting clean vehicle and
fuel technology. Low emission vehicles become more popular in order to green the public transport
fleet, i.e. electric buses and buses with high emission standards, in order to protect the health quality
of the citizens especially in the urban areas. In the Netherlands for example, around 76% of the public
transport bus fleet already have EEV (Enhanced Environmentally friendly Vehicle) standards, which
is the highest European emission standard that corresponds to very low pollutant emissions. In terms
6The 8th highest hourly concentration of ozone within a year.