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service teacher education system of the province even today. Of note is the fact that private
sector has gained increasing importance in the provision of this training raising quality
considerations. However, the public sector continues to play an important role in the
professional development of teachers in the country.
Another study by Marine de Talancé (2016) provides strong evidence on the relationship
between teachers and acquisition of skills. The results suggest that teachers are one of the main
drivers of learning and some observable teacher characteristics are associated with students’
achievement. Teachers with temporary contracts seem to perform better than permanent
teachers. Locally recruited teachers also tend to be more effective. Results also suggested that
teachers’ wage policy could be a tool to motivate teachers and improve the quality of schooling.
Whilst many notable reforms have occurred to improve the teaching provision in the country,
there are numerous challenges that prevail. A significant challenge highlighted by Aslam et al.
(2016) is the politicization of teachers within the country with teachers and the government not
always being positively engaged in the policy process at the design or implementation stages.
The study argues that teachers are critical stakeholders who must be consulted within reform
processes to give them a sense of ownership to implement the reforms effectively to improve
educational outcomes.
The education provision landscape in the country has changed significantly over the last
few decades
Each of the four provinces of the country after the 18th Amendment in 2010 is responsible for
making policies, curriculum, implementation and allocations for education. Each province has
crafted their legislation for implementing article 25-A, along with Education Sector Plans to
address the challenges of access, equity, quality and governance. ICT, Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab
and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have passed their Compulsory and Free Education Acts; Sindh has
also notified its rules in 2016. The implementation for all legislations on 25A is still awaited.
Over the years, the authority for planning and implementation of schooling has been devolved
within state structures. From federal to provincial level, policy and budget formulation is a
provincial mandate post the 18th Amendment in 2010. From provincial to district level, the
resource allocation to schools and teacher accountability has been transferred to district
administrations. From district to the school level, the school heads have been given authority to
report underperforming teachers, allocate resources at the school level, hire contract teachers
as stop-gap measures, empowered the community through school councils). In reality, effective
practice of autonomy is missing and a number of the empowered agents are not making
decisions autonomously and in response to needs (Khan, 2014; Malik and Rose, 2015; Malik,
Bari, Muzaffar, 2015). There is very little research in the area of autonomous decision-making
in Pakistan’s context. There continues to be a need for developing diagnostic tools for
understanding the link between autonomous decision-making by front-line agents (teachers,
school leaders) at the school and classroom level and learning outcomes in Pakistan’s context.
One of the most notable trends in education provision within Pakistan has been the
mushrooming of the non-state sector as a popular alternative to state provided education,
increasing the options parents have for education providers (Andrabi et al., 2007, Aslam 2009).
Non-state schooling encompasses a wide array of providers operating at different scales, scope
of operations, and extent of penetration across locations and in terms of their management
structures, financing arrangements and their relationship with the government (Aslam,