national examination at the school level. The Malaysian Examination Council prepares and

administers (

Majlis Peperiksaan)

for the Malaysian Higher School certificate (

Sijil Tinggi

Pelajaran Malaysia)

examination, as well as the Malaysian Universities English Test, taken at the

end of form 6 for entry to university. Standard textbooks are used throughout National schools

in Malaysia the preparation of which is coordinated by the Textbook bureau. The standardized

curriculum, examinations and textbooks points to a highly centralized education system. The

state and district education offices merely adhere to and implement policies of the federal

government. Federal government also remains the key source of funding for schools. In 2016,

actual educational expenditure accounted for 15.48%of the total federal expenditure. Generally,

schools are funded using per capita grants based on number of students enrolled in the school

(Marzuki, 2005a, 2005b).

3.2.2.

Major Education Reforms and Policies

The education system inMalaysia has evolved in response to recommendations made by various

education commissions. Following the recommendation of the Razak Report 1956 and the

Education Ordinance 1957 emphasizing the formulation of a national education system, Malay

was declared the primary medium of instruction along with the introduction of a common

system of examination. Following the Rahman Talib Report and Education Act 1961, two

streams were introduced at the upper secondary education level - academic and vocational. The

1979 Cabinet report recommended greater focus on reading, writing and arithmetic skills and

policies as emphasized in the Rahman Talib report. The Education Bill 1995 focused on the

national education system to deliver world-class education to achieve national aspirations. In

2003, an important policy shift was the change of the medium of instruction for mathematics

and science curriculum from Malay to English language. However, the sudden implementation

of the policy ‘Teaching and Learning of Science and Mathematics in English’ (PPSMI), without

accounting for the competency level of teachers and students, created major challenges. There

was resistance from parents and students, particularly from rural communities. In 2009,

another new policy -- ‘Upholding the Malay Language and Strengthening Command of English’

(

Memartabatkan Bahasa Malaysia Memperkukuh Bahasa Inggeris

)

-- was introduced for Year

1 to Form 5 students, replacing PPSMI by the Malaysian Cabinet in July 2009. This MBMMBI

policy has been implemented in phases since 2010. The change from PPSMI to MBMMBI is

expected to produce Malaysians who are fluent and assertive in both Malay (BM) and English

languages.

Once again, this has created much schism. In the face of serious opposition from upper middle

class parents, the government introduced a pilot scheme, the “Dual Language Programme”

(DLP), under the government initiative ‘Empower Bahasa Malaysia and Strengthen English’. The

DLP programme has been introduced at selected Malaysian primary and secondary schools

beginning 2016, involving 300 schools. The purpose of the DLP initiative is to give students the

opportunity to use either English or Malay in Science, Mathematics, Information Technology and

Communication, and Design and Technology.

Education reforms in Malaysia gathered momentum in the last three five-year plan periods. The

ninth Malaysia plan also saw the launch of the National Education Blueprint (2006-2010).

Reforms introduced included initiatives to decentralize the education service delivery (e.g. the

establishment of cluster schools, high performing schools, and trust schools). However, it

remains contested to what extent these measures decentralized the education system. For

Also known as MBMMBI